Human Movement Tracking Technology

Hand Centered Studies of Human Movement Project

Addendum to Technical Report 94-1

Human movement tracking technology: resources

A list of currently available sensing technologies for tracking human movement 

Prepared by: Axel Mulder, School of Kinesiology, Simon Fraser University

July 1994 (last additions: 8 May 1998)

Acknowledgement: This work was supported in part by a strategic grant from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada.

© 1994 Simon Fraser University. All rights reserved.

Greenleaf Medical Systems / VPL Research inc.: DataGlove model 4; Date: 9 nov 93; Description: uses fiberoptic sensors; DOF: 5 metacarpo-phalangeal joints, interphalangeal joint of the thumb, 4 proximal interphalangeal joints of the other fingers; Range: flexion and hyperextension; Angular resolution: < 1 deg over entire dynamic range (12 bit a/d); Static accuracy: < 5 deg over entire range; Data acquisition rate: upto 160 Hz; Data communications interface: RS232 from 1K2 to 115K2; Operating conditions: 15-40 deg C at rel. humidity of 30 to 60 %, non condensing; Size: 17"x7"x17" (control unit, 19" rack mountable), three sizes / left and right handed (glove); Power: <100 W; Price: US$ 11,700.- (Dataglove model 4 control unit + glove + software), US$ 2.700,- (additional glove); Reference: VPL Dataglove model 4 product information. VPL Dataglove model 2 manual. Wise et al (1990), Eglowstein (1990), Hong et al (1989), Lasko-Harvill et al (1988), Zimmerman et al (1987).; 

VPL Research inc.: DataSuit; Description: uses fiberoptic sensors; DOF: 50 joints, including knees, arms, torso and feet. 4 polhemus trackers (2 for the hands, 1 for the head, 1 on the back of the suit); Price: (may not be available) Reference: Lasko-Harvill et al (1988)

Virtual Technologies (Virtex): Cyberglove; Date: 21 june 91; Description: uses piezoresistive sensors; DOF: 3 flex sensors + abduction sensor per finger, plus thumb crossover, palm arch, wrist flexion and abduction; Angular resolution: 0.5 degrees over entire dynamic range; Material: 80/20 nylon/lycra; Interface: RS232, up to 115K2; Sampling rate: 100 Hz; Price: US$ 9,800.- (18 chan.); Reference: Product information Virtex Cyberglove. Personal communication.

Exos Inc.: Dexterous Handmaster; Date: 17 july 91; Description: uses Hall-effect sensors on exoskeleton; DOF: 20 (glove); Sampling rate: upto 100 Hz; Accuracy: ca. 1/2 deg.; Interface: RS422 (for sampling rate 100 Hz), or RS 232; Software: for IBM compatible, VME, Apple Mac with at least 640 KB memory; Weight: ca. 11 oz; Temperature range: 25 +/- 10 deg C; Price: US$ 17,400.-(includes complete PC); Reference: Product information Exos Dexterous Handmaster. Eberman et al (1993), Marcus and Sturman (1991), Marcus and Eberman (1991 - 2 refs), Eglowstein (1990), Marcus et al (1989), 

Mattel / Nintendo: Powerglove; Description: uses piezoresistive flex sensors + acoustic tracking for hand; Distribution: Abrams-Gentile Entertainment (AGE) Inc. or Toys R us, K-Mart, etc. (toy stores) - may be sold out ; Interface: only works with Nintendo/Mattel products; third party interfaces available (e.g. AGE and Transfinite interface for Mac); DOF: 8, i.e. flexion of thumb, index, middle and ring finger + x, y, z, roll of hand; Range: finger flexion only (i.e. no extension), hand position from 10 to 15 ft translation and handorientation +/- 45 deg working angle off the centre aids; Resolution: 2 bit (low-res mode) or 8 bit (hi-res mode) for finger flexion, 1/24 %  for hand roll and 6.35 mm for translation (distance of glove to receivers = 0.3048 m); Reference: Mattel / Nintendo Powerglove manual, Eglowstein (1990), Gardner (1989), Mulder (1994).

Virtual Presence / TCAS: Datawear; Date: 6 Oct 93; Description: uses piezoresistive conductive neoprene sensors; DOF: 24 standard, 12 for jacket, 8 for trousers, 4 for hood, up to 96 channels (suit) / 6 or 11 channels (glove, more can be added); Accuracy: 2% (locally temperature compensated); Material: lycra based material, jacket + trousers (suit) / fingerless (glove); Weight: 750 g; Price: (UKL)  20,000.- (24 ch. suit), 2,500.- (each add. 4 ch.); 12,000.- (12 ch jacket); 8,000.- (8 ch. trousers); 2,500.- (6 ch. glove); 4,500.- (11 ch. glove). US$ 37,000.- (96 sensor suit).; Reference: Virtual Presence / TCAS Datawear product information

Anaphase unlimited: (unkown product name); Date: April 1995; Description: instrumented glove for VR applications; DOF: ?; Reference: Wired nr?? 95; Price: < 100 US$.

5DT: Dataglove and flexor kit; Date: April 1995; Description: instrumented glove for finger flexion and extension measurement, and flexor strip for elbow or knee flexion measurement. Comes with software development kit for DOS and Windows, Kinemusica software for virtual musical instrument creation and gesture recognition software; DOF: 5 ?; Accuracy: 8 bit; Sample rate: 25 Hz (all 5 fingers); Latency: ca. 8 ms; Data communications: PC ISA bus card  allows 4 data gloves and 16 flexor strips to be daisy chained; Price: US$ 495.- (incl. shipping)

W Industries / Virtuality Entertainment Systems: Space glove; Description: uses fiberoptics; DOF: one flex for each finger, two flex for thumb, 3-space magnetic tracker on the back of the hand; Resolution: 12 bit A/D used; Material: soft-molded plastic; Interface: only works with products of the same company; Reference: Sturman et al (1994). 

AITek s.r.l.: GLAD-IN-ART glove; Date: 3 Oct 90; Description: uses piezoresistive sensors ? + force-feedback with exoskeleton; Comments: The dataglove structure wraps around the hand and supports kinesthetic sensors for the fingers.  Flexion-extension and abduction-adduction movements are recorded by the sensors.  The glove has 12 motors, one for each phalanx of each finger (i.e. 3 per finger) with the little finger excluded.  The glove contains 23 sensors.  Each finger has 3 strain gauge sensors and one magnetic sensor. Two mechanical sensors and one made of conductive plastic monitor the wrist joint.  The final force feedback glove will use only strain gages for force and conductive plastic for all fingers and other points of measurement. AITek is the leader of a european consortium funded by ESPRIT II. projectnumber is P5363.; Price: no product available; Reference:  ESPRIT II P5363 GLAD-IN-ART proposal information. Personal communication.

Motion Orchestration Systems: suit  and glove; Date: 4 oct 93; Description: uses electromagnetic coil pairs of which relative position and orientation can be determined; Interference: yes, but adding freq's easy; Sensor: 3/4" square, 1/4" high coils, shifts around a bit, can be 6 DOF, but only one DOF is used; Interface: wireless RF, own comm. protocol; Update rate: 32 Hz; Resolution: < 0.5 deg.; Latency: < 62.5 ms.; Suit-host connection: Pulsed Digital Modulation (PDM) serial transmission via 15 ft coaxial cord or wireless 300 MHz / 100 ft; Host: IBM PC digital I/O card + quickC software; DOF: 2 on each shoulder, 1 on each elbow, 1 on each forearm for torsion, 1 on each knee, 2 for ventral side of pelvis (dutch: "lies"), 1 on stomach, 1 on neck (totals 14 analog 12 bit), plus an additional 16 digital (8 for each hand to make contact at thumb or chest); Components: two part suit (spandex bottom + stretch leotard top), two stretch fabric gloves, belt with electronics, FM transmitter and receiver modules, additional cables etc.; Calibration: via 5 different choreographed positions ; Comments: future extensions include optical wireless, more sensors (70 channels), more driving freq's, glove; Price: aiming at US$ 1,000.- or less for a production model (not available yet); Reference: Weber (1992), Personal communication.

Bodysynth: suit; Date: May 94; Description: uses multiple EMG registration sensors; DOF: 4 muscle inputs standard, + 4 optional, + 12 other binary sensors optional; Size: 1"x2.5"x4" (body unit), 2"x5"x7.5" (processor unit); Comments: standalone MIDI controller with 'Autoscene & the bodyswitch" for instant patch changes, 64 "Bodypatch" presets, cross-channel controls, adjustable tempo, external sync, MIDI ctrl inputs; Price: contact manufacturer (ca. 1,000.-); Reference: Product information BodySynth. Personal communication.

NTT Human Interface Lab: Cyberfinger glove; Date: 15 Nov 93; Description: uses 2 EMG registration sensors on wrist + neural network; Accuracy: 20 deg on average; Price: no product available; Reference: For Cyberfingers, it's all in the wrist action Neural Chip Removes Need For Data Glove, The Nikkei Weekly, SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, (November 15 1993) p 13 

BioControl Systems: EMG interfacing; Date: August 1993; Description: Signal processing of multiple EMG registration sensors. They also make an EOG based system.  Their resolution is currently insufficient for vision research but may well be adequate for pointing devices (which is their target market anyway). ; Reference: Knapp (1990). Personal communication.

Penny & Giles Blackwood Ltd.: Goniometers; Date: October 1988; Description: uses strain gauges to measure the flexion/extension/abduction etc. of joints; Resolution: (claimed to be "infinite"); Temperature range: -10 to +50 deg C; Price: UKL 88.- (G35 single axis goniometer), UKL 225.- (M180, M110 or M65 twin axis goniometer), UKL 531.- (ADU201 angle display unit), UKL 499.- (software); Reference: Product information Penny & Giles goniometers. Morimoto et al (1988). 

The Character Shop: Waldo; Description: facial expression tracking system using several types of sensors for tracking facial muscles and jaw.

"Harpo" suit ; Description: uses potentiometers; cumbersome and noisy; Price: no product available; Reference: SIGGRAPH 93 coursenotes #1

Ascension Technology Corp.: Bird; Date: August 93; Description: DC electromagnetic receiver/transmitter; DOF: x, y, z, azimuth, elevation, roll; Range: +/- 24" translation, +/- 180 deg azimuth & roll, +/- 90 deg elevation; Accuracy: 0.1" RMS, 0.5 deg RMS; Resolution: 0.03", 0.1 deg RMS @ 8"; Update rate: 100 HZ; Interface: RS232; Size: 3.75" cube (transmitter), 1"x1"x0.8" (receiver), 9.5"x11.5"x4.4" (enclosure); Weight: 1 lb (transmitter), 1 oz (receiver); Reference: Product information Ascension Technology Bird

Ascension Technology Corp.: ERT (Extended Range Transmitter); Date: August 93; Description: DC electromagnetic receiver/transmitter; DOF: x, y, z, azimuth, elevation, roll; Range: +/- 8 ft translation, +/- 180 deg azimuth & roll, +/- 90 deg elevation; Accuracy: 0.1" RMS; Update rate: 100 HZ; Interface: RS232, RS422/485; Weight: 1 lb (transmitter), 1 oz (receiver); Reference: Product information Ascension Technology ERT (Extended Range Transmitter)

Ascension Technology Corp.: Flock of Birds; Date: August 93; Description: DC electromagnetic receiver/transmitter; Product: Flock of Birds; DOF: up to 30 receivers (each with x, y, z, azimuth, elevation, roll) with upto 14 transmitters; Range: +/- 3 ft translation, +/- 180 deg azimuth & roll, +/- 90 deg elevation; Modes: one transmitter - multiple receiver, walking Bird, time sharing; Price: US$2,695.- (?); Reference: Badler (1993), Product information Ascension Technology Flock of Birds. Manual Ascension Technology Flock of Birds.

Polhemus Inc.: InsideTrak; Date: 16 july 93, august 94; Description: AC electromagnetic receiver/transmitter; DOF: x, y, z, azimuth, elevation, roll; Interface: ISA; Static accuracy: 3 deg. RMS for receiver orientation within 30" range; Resolution: 0.025 deg orientation; Interference: large metallic object can affect performance; Temperature range: 10 to 40 deg C at rel. humidity of 10 to 95 % (non condensing) ; Latency: 12 ms without software filter; Update rate: 60 hz / nr of receivers; Synchronization of multiple systems: frequency multiplexed int. or ext. sync; Range: up to 5 ft translation (908 sq ft with LongRanger), +/- 180 deg azimuth & roll, +/- 90 deg elevation; Size: 0.9"x1.1"x0.6" (receiver), 2.3"x2.2"x2.2" (transmitter), 13.3"x3.9" (electronics unit); Weight: 0.6 oz (receiver), 9.0 oz. (transmitter), 2.5 lbs. (electronics unit); Power: 15 watts; Price: US$5.750.- (?), US$ 3,500.- (LongRanger, august 94); Reference: Raab et al (1979), Bryson (1992)

Polhemus Inc.: IsoTrak II; Date: 16 july 93; Description: AC electromagnetic receiver/transmitter; DOF: x, y, z, azimuth, elevation, roll; Interface: RS232 upto 115.2 KBaud; Static accuracy: 0.1 in RMS for the XYZ position, 0.75 deg. RMS for receiver orientation within 30" range; Resolution: 0.0015 in/in of transmitter and receiver separation, 0.1 deg orientation; Interference: large metallic object can affect performance; Temperature range: 10 to 40 deg C at rel. humidity of 10 to 95 % (non condensing) ; Latency: 20 ms without software filter, 40 ms with filter; Update rate: 60 hz / nr of receivers; Synchronization of multiple systems: time multiplexed int. or ext. sync; Range: up to 5 ft translation, +/- 180 deg azimuth & roll, +/- 90 deg elevation; Size: 0.9"x1.1"x0.6" (receiver), 2.3"x2.2"x2.2" (transmitter), 7.0"x3.7"x2.2" (power Supply), 11"x11.4"x3.6" (electronics unit); Weight: 0.6 oz (receiver), 9.0 oz. (transmitter), 1.25 lbs (power supply) 4.0 lbs. (electronics unit); Power: 25 watts; Price (17 feb 93): US$ 2,875.- (electronics unit with one transmitter driver and 2 receiver inputs, power supply, receiver, transmitter), US$ 3,500.- (LongRanger, august 94); Reference: Raab et al (1979), Bryson (1992)

Polhemus Inc.: FasTrak; Date: 16 july 93, august 94; Description: AC electromagnetic receiver/transmitter; DOF: x, y, z, azimuth, elevation, roll; Interface: RS232 upto 115.2 KBaud or IEEE488 upto 100KBytes/s; Static accuracy: 0.03 in RMS for the XYZ position, 0.15 deg. RMS for receiver orientation within 30" range; Resolution: 0.0002 in/in of transmitter and receiver separation, 0.025 deg orientation; Interference: large metallic object can affect performance, CRT interference rejection built-in; Temperature range: 10 to 40 deg C at rel. humidity of 10 to 95 % (non condensing) ; Latency: 4 ms without software filter; Update rate: 120 hz / nr of receivers; Synchronization of multiple systems: freq. multiplexed int. or ext. sync; Range: up to 10 ft (908 sq ft with LongRanger), +/- 180 deg azimuth, +/- 90 deg elevation, +/- 180 deg roll; Size: 0.9"x1.1"x0.6" (receiver), 2.3"x2.2"x2.2" (transmitter), 7.0"x3.7"x2.2" (power supply), 11"x11.4"x3.6" (electronics unit); Weight: 0.6 oz (receiver), 9.0 oz. (transmitter), 1.25 lbs (power supply) 4.0 lbs. (electronics unit); Power: 25 watts; Price (17 feb 93): US$ 5750,- (electronics unit with one transmitter driver and 4 receiver inputs, power supply, receiver, transmitter); Reference: Krieg (1993), Raab et al (1979), Bryson (1992)

Polhemus Inc.: 3Ball; Description: uses Polhemus FastTrak; DOF: 6; Accuracy: .03" position / .15 degree orientation; Interfacing: Has SGI driver, except for the switch; Price: US$ 1,000.- (hardware)

SimGraphics Engineering: Flying Mouse ; Description: uses Polhemus FastTrak, discontinued, now they focus on software; DOF:  6; Accuracy: .03" position / .15 degree orientation; Interfacing: Has SGI driver and they developed the drivers for the Data Glove and   ; will be a possible source for other drivers as well - at a price.; Price: US$ 750.- (software)

Virtual Research: Wand; Description: uses polhemus FastTrak; DOF: 6; Accuracy: .03" position / .15 degree orientation

Digital Image Design Inc.: Cricket       ; DOF: 3 (?); Description: uses ultrasound. A 3D interaction tool featuring upright orientation with trigger, grip, thumb, and suspend buttons.  Pressure is measured on trigger and grip buttons; pressure and direction (360 degrees) are measured on the thumb button.  A variable vibration provides tactile feedback.  The Cricket works with 6D trackers by Ascension, Logitech and Polhemus. Senses position and orientation.  Tactile display, variable vibration for direct somatosensory feedback.  Designed expressly for 3D use.  No compromises were made for desktop use, but it can be used as a 2D mouse in many circumstances.  Carefullly researched and tested ergonomic design: your arm hangs comfortably at your side, and the unit is upright with your hand at a resting angle.  Fits large and small, male and female, left and right handed people.  Buttom placement based on common hand use; the trigger chooses or points likeyour index finger; the thumb presses down, opposing the hand; the rest of the hand "grips," working as a unit.  Rounded extended base allows use as a joystick, reducing fatigue and allowing fine control in all six dimensions.  Pressure on each button is measured.  Positive tactile on/off switch in each button separately returns a Boolean value.  Requires Logitech Red Baron System, Ascension Flock System, Polhemus Isotrak System, Polhemus Isotrak II System, or Polhemus Fastrak System.  90 day warranty and support.; Price: US$ 3,200.- plus list price of a position tracker.

Piltdown: 3-D compass; Description: phase coherent acoustic position tracking; DOF: x, y, z, azimuth, elevation, roll; Range: 4.572 m cube; Accuracy: < 2 mm, < 0.1 deg; Resolution: 0.1 mm, 0.1 deg; Update rate: 60 Hz; Phase lag: < 20 ms; Modes: continuous, demand, incremental; Size: 457.2 mm equilateral frame (transmitter), 76.2 triangular frame (receiver); Interface: RS232 (9600, 19200, 38400 baud); Reference: Kalawsky (1993) p150-152

Seitz-Pezaris: HMD position tracker; Description: acoustic phase-coherent tracking; Accuracy: 7.62 mm; Contact: ?? (no longer commercially available ?); Reference: Kalawsky (1993) p150

Logitech Inc.: 6D/2D Mouse; Description: uses ultrasound; DOF:  6; Accuracy: 1/200" (2% of the distance from source), 0.1 deg (normal), 1/50", 0.5 deg (in fringe area or extended range mode); Resolution: 200 dpi / 0.1 deg in active area and 50 dpi / 0.5 deg in fringe area (6D mode), 400 dpi  (2D mode), 50 dpi / 0.5 deg (extended range or head tracker mode); Update rate: up to 50 Hz (demand and incremental mode), 50 Hz (stream mode), 25 Hz (in extended range or head tracker mode); Tracking speed: up to 30"/s; Modes: demand / incremental / stream, mouse (2D / 6D) / extended range or head tracker ; Formats: euler angles or quaternions (6D mode), M+ or MS (2D mode); Range: 2 ft cube plus 8" fringe area (mouse mode), 7 ft cube (extended range or head tracker mode); System components: control unit, 2D / 6D mouse, triangle, power supply; Compatibility: Logitech and Microsoft pointing devices in 2D mode; Price: US$ 1,000.- (hardware)

Logitech Inc.: Red Baron; Description: ultrasonic head tracker; Price: US$ 995.-

Digisonic Inc.: (product name unknown); Date: November 1994; Description: ultrasonic TOF head body position/orientation tracking device; DOF: 6; Range: 8 ft; Resolution: < 200 DPI, 0.1 deg.; Latency: < 12 ms; Data communications: PC ISA bus card (allows two receivers); Price: US$ 695.-

Kantek Inc.: Spectrum Ringmouse; date: May 1995; Description: ultrasonic TOF xyz position tracker for finger pointing applications with 2 switches transmitted via IR; Ultrasonic broadcast: 180 deg; IR broadcast: 160 deg; Resolution: 100 DPI; Tracking speed: < 30 inch/s; Tracking range: < 3 ft; Sample rate: < 50 Hz; Data communications: RS232C, 4800 Baud, DB9 connector; Power supply: 10 mA; Temperature range: 0-55 deg Celsius; Price: ca. US$ 160.-

5DT: Head/hand position tracker; Date: April 1995; Description: ultrasonic tracker for head and hand motion; DOF: 3 (x, y, z); Range: 4mm - 2m; Update rate: 50 Hz; System components: ultrasonic transmitter unit, small receiver unit, two interface cables, PC interface card (allows up to three receivers); Price: US$ 245.-

Science Accesories Corporation: Space Pen, GP12ES, GP12XL; Date: August 10, 1994; Description: acoustic TOF tracking; DOF: 3 (x,y,z); Resolution: 0.01 cm (GP12ES), 0.005 cm (GP12XL); Sample rate: < 100 Hz; Data communications: RS232C, upto 38.4 KBaud; Range: 2.4 m cube (GP12XL), 1 m cube (GP12ES); System components: Probe, Triangular detector array (acrylic for GP12ES, metal for GP12XL), remote calibration mechanism (only with GP12XL), DOS TSR interface software, cables, power supply; Size: 17.3x3x13.5 inch; Weight: 11.5 lbs; Price: US$ 5,965.- (GP12XL); Reference: Kalawsky (1993) p150

APR Inc.: Gesture and Media System (GAMS); Date: February 94; Description: ultrasonic wireless 3D input device for interactive control of media. The wand can be purchased as a stick-like device or as a cigarette-pack sized unit with a cable to position the USonic microphone. Data is transmitted wirelessly; DOF: XYZ position, velocity and acceleration as well as button status; Sample rate: < 32 Hz; Latency: 75 ms; Precision: +/- 2 inch (+/- 5 cm); Accuracy: +/- 1 inch (+/- 2.5 cm); Range: 450 sq ft (42 sq m) (larger areas possible under certain conditions); Size: 27 cm by 4 cm diameter (wand as stick) or 10x6x2.5 cm (wand as packet); Weight: 250 g (wand as stick), 140 g (wand as packet); System components: PC AT interface card, ultrasonic speakers, radio receiver, MIDI mapping software, up to 4 wireless wands; Power supply: 9V lasts about 10 hrs for alkaline battery (wand); Price: US$ 6500 (one wand, mapping software, US speakers, cables, radio receiver, PC AT interface card), US$ 900 (single wand and radio receiver), US$ 4000 (upgrade to 4 wand system)

Lincoln Laboratory: Wand; Description: acoustic TOF tracking; Sampling rate: 25 Hz; Accuracy: 0.2"; Contact: ?? (no longer commercially available ?); Reference: Kalawsky (1993) p150

Fake Space Laboratories: BOOM head tracker; DOF: x, y, z, azimuth, elevation, roll; Translation range: 2.5 ft high, 5 ft diameter; Translation accuracy: 0.16 inch; Angular resolution: 0.1 deg; Phase lag: ca. 0 deg; Latency: < 1 ms (no filtering required); Interface: RS232; Reference: Kalawsky (1993) p134

Shooting Star Technology:  ADL-1 head tracker; Description: mechanical tracker; Modes: Demand, Incremental, Free running or Continuous; Update rate: up to 300 Hz; Latency: < 2ms (typical); Accuracy: 0.200"; Resolution: 0.025" (depending on position in workspace), 0.15" to 0.3" (depending on which joint); Repeatability: < 0.100"; Material: Lightweight aluminum alloy; Data formats: Position - roll/pitch/yaw, Position - rotation matrix, Joint angles, Raw data; Workspace: half cylinder of ca. 36" diameter, 18" high; Interfacing: RS232C at 4800/9600/19200/38400 Baud using DB9 connector; Price: ca. US$ 1,495.- (hardware); Reference: Shooting Star Technology  ADL-1 head tracker manual. Gradecki (1994) p24.  

Virtual Reality News: WrighTrac; Description: 6DOF arm based head tracker; Reference: Gradecki (1994) p24

Sutherland: head tracker; Description: mechanical tracking; DOF: x, y, z, azimuth, elevation, roll; Range: 6 ft diameter, 3 ft high, +/- 180 deg azimuth, +/- 40 deg elevation; Accuracy: 0.1", 1/10000 of rotation; Price: (no longer commercially available ?); Reference: Kalawsky (1993) p20-22

SimGraphics Engineering: VActor Performer; Date: August 94; Description: facial expression tracking using mechanical sliding devices, one end attached to skin of face and other side to frame worn on head

Digital Image Design: Monkey; Date: August 94; Description: mechanical puppet with potentiometers that measure bend flex of the "joints". For specifying animation sequences of articulated figures; DOF: 34 (6 assignable in separate box), 4 binary switches (e.g. for keyframing)

MIT Medialab: hand/body tracking; Date: september 1993; Description: electrostatic field based measurement of body parts location and movement; Contact: Neil Gershenfeld, Tom Zimmerman, MIT Medialab, Cambridge, MA USA

Bioengineering Technology & Systems / Superfluo: ELITE; Date: August 93; Description: uses passive reflective markers (plastic hemispheres coated with retroreflective material) and electronic shutter CCD camera(s) with IR LED's around the lens + tracking software. Pattern recognition technology (cross-correlation algorithm) to identify markers also by their shape and not only by their brightness and size. Two-level hierarchical structure for the recovery of 3-D coordinates (low-level implementation of the cross-correlation algorithm and higher level implementation of image distortion correction, space resection and intersection, filtering and marker tracking). Allows for data acquisition from EMG, force platform, etc.. Outputs real and projected angles, joint moments, kinetic and potential energy, vector diagrams, etc.. Good for fast movements such as sporting motion, not good for impacts (higher sampling rate needed upto 500 Hz). Menu-driven software for easy use.; Comments: used by Superfluo; Resolution: 1/65,536 of the field of view; Accuracy: 1/24,000 of the field of view; Sampling rate: 50 or 100 Hz, multiplexed versions 12.5 and 25 Hz, > 100 Hz can be achieved using a special arrangement of the cameras; Range of field of view: 20 cm to 8 m (use 1 cm markers); Marker size: 1 to 10 mm, generally 3x6 mm (facial animation) or 15x20 mm (body animation) ; Number of markers: unlimited, 100 guaranteed; Software: for IBM compatible (calibration, acquisition, tracking, filtering, 3D reconstruction of the data); Price: US$ 135,600.- (3D 50 Hz) + 33,000.- (upgrade for 100 Hz); Reference: Ferrigno (1990), product information BTS ELITE

Selspot AB: SELSPOT II; Date: 1 March 1993; Description: uses synchronized infrared LED markers with pair of camera's (up to 16 cameras and up to 120 markers can be used). Allows for 2-D or 3-D motion analysis. 3-D coordinates constructed from 2 or more cameras. Calculates angle, acceleration, moments, etc. 48 analog input channels with maximum Sampling rate of 1-5 kHz for EMG, force platform, etc. Markers are sequenced to ensure identification. MULTILAB software for data analysis. Calibration and set up difficult. Error sources: background light interference (need lighting control), image distortion, interference of wired body markers with movement. Electronic signal-to-noise ratio is a critical limitation of the system.; Sampling rate: 10 / (# cameras * # IR-LED's) [kHz]; Sampling time: 100 us for each 3D point; Resolution: 0.025 % of measuring range; Non-linearity (of detector): 0.1 % of measuring range ; Accuracy: 0.5% of measuring range; Range: 1 m cube; DOF: x, y, z; Temperature range: 0 - 40 deg Celsius; Relative humidity: 10% - 95% noncondensing; Price: US$ 37,900.-; Reference: Berger et al (1990), product information Selspot SELSPOT II

Northern Digital Inc.: Optotrak; Date: Oct 1991; Description: uses synchronized infrared LED markers, wired to the system hardware, tracked by 3 IR sensitive cameras mounted on a rigid base. Software modules to calculate 3D position, angles, moments, rotation, etc.. Allows for analog input of EMG, force platform data, etc.. Errors not detected until data analysis. No interference by background reflection. Not suitable for long tasks as markers get hot on skin.; Accuracy: 1/20,000 of the field of view (30 microns in a 1-meter volume); Resolution: 1/64,000 of the field of view (within a range of 1-8 m); Number of markers: up to 256; measurement range: 1 m to 8 m; Sampling rate: up to 3,500 points per second; Latency: (real-time); Price: US$ 80,000.-; Reference: Northern Digital Optotrak manual and product information

Log-In srl.: COSTEL; Date: 1 March 1993; Description: IR-LED markers are tracked by 3 CCD cameras. Automated system.; Precision: 0.02 % of measurement field width; Accuracy: 0.1 % of measurement field width; Spatial resolution: 0.025 % of measurement field width; Sampling rate: up to 250 Hz; Number of markers: 10 at 250 Hz, 20 at 125 Hz; Evaluation: low sensitivity to spurious light, reflections and other environmental noise, measures slow movement, calibration object is small and not deformable in transportation, cumbersome to use in work environment, need space for 3 cameras, easy, fast, reliable, does not require specific technical skills; Price: LIT 132,000.- (3D system, includes PC); Reference: Bianchi et al (1990), product information Log-In srl. Costel

Adaptive Optics Associates Inc.: Multi-Trax; Date: 10 June 1994; Description: Reflective markers are illuminated synchronously by IR flasher. The reflections of the markers are consequently captured by 1 or more cameras and processed by a videoprocessor and computer. Other markers (IR emitting light sources, laser spots or retroprisms) can also be used.; Resolution: 1/30,000 of field of view; Spatiotemporal noise: 0.003 % of field of view (typical); Exposure time: 0.8 ms; Temperature drift: 0.01% of field of view; Frame rate: 50 or 60 Hz, 120 Hz for a 4 camera system; Measuring distance: 0.5 to 30 m indoor, 0.5 to 8 m outdoor; Marker size: 0.5 to 18 % of field of view; Number of markers: upto 20 in realtime, more in non-realtime; Temperature range: 0-40 deg Celsius; Relative humidity: 20 - 95%; Reference: product information Adaptive Optics Associates Inc. Multi-Trax 

Optikon Corp. Ltd.: MacReflex; Date: 1 March 1993; Description: System consists of upto 7 specially developed precision cameras, a videoprocessor and MacReflex software. Reflective markers, IR emitting light sources, laser spots or retroprisms are tracked by the system in 2 or 3 dimensions using an infrared strobe; Frame rate: 50 or 100 Hz; Resolution: 1/30,000 of field of view; Spatiotemporal noise: 0.003 % of field of view; Exposure time: 0.8 ms; Temperature drift: 0.01% of field of view; Measuring distance: 0.5 to 30 m indoor, 0.5 to 8 m outdoor with camera type HP; Max number of markers: 100, 20 guaranteed in "real-time"; Marker size: 0.5% to 18% of field of view; Precision: 0.01 % of the measurement range; Synchronization: to mains if mains is 50 Hz or to external 50 Hz; Temperature range: 0-40 deg Celsius; Relative humidity: 20 - 95%; Reference: product information Optikon Corp. Ltd. MacReflex

Columbus Instruments: VideoMex-x / Biovision; Date: 23 Feb 1993; Description: 2D motion measurement using a color camera and image analyzer, and color markers; Framerate: 60 Hz; Max number of markers: 6; Min diameter of markers: 2% of field of view; Resolution: 1/500 of field of view (0.2 %); Price: US$ 24,189.- (3D 60 Hz digitizer) + 3 times US$ 6,289.- (highspeed CCD camera); Reference: product information Columbus Instruments VideoMex-x / Biovision

Yaman Ltd.: Optfollow 7100; DOF: x, y, z; Sampling rate: up to 500 kHz; Workspace: adaptable by using various lenses; Description: light intensity discontinuity tracking through servoloop control of photo-electrically generated electron beam (of an image dissector tube) using magnetic focussing of deflection coils.; System components: camera with photo multiplier tube, hard- and software unit, D.C. light source, lenses.; Range: use 20 % of the linear portion of the lense's actual range; Reference: Fetzer et al (1990)

Charnwood Dynamics Ltd.: CODA MPX30; Description: 3-D coordinates registered by 3 scanning mirror assemblies within a scanner unit. IR LED's illuminate passive non-wired markers which are captured by high resolution electronic shutter cameras. Markers are automatically identified. The system is internally pre-calibrated. Provides stick figure animations, movement paths in 2-D plane. Accepts input in analog form from other sources (EMG, force platform, etc.). High sampling rate. Errors of measurment intrinsic to the system are calibration errors, mirror and time-skewing errors next to marker geometry errors.; Frame rate: 200 Hz; Measurement range: upto 8 m; Resolution: 0.08 mm (x and y), 0.89 mm (z) at 6 m distance; Precision: 1/47,000 (x and y), 1/4,200 (z) at 6 m distance; Spatiotemporal resolution: 1/658,000 (x and y), 1/60,000 (z) at 6 m distance; Accuracy: 0.05 % of measurement range; Reference: Mitchelson (1990)

Oxford Metrics Ltd.: VICON VX; Description: uses spherical, passive, retro-reflective markers and infrared-sensitive electronc shutter CCD cameras in phase locked loop synchronization+ AMASS tracking software. Geometric Self Identification (GSI) technology, using 3D ray intersection searching, for automatic 3-D coordinates of markers. Requires careful (time-consuming) camera calibration.; Frame rates: 50, 60 and 200 Hz; Quantisation noise: 1/7,314 (50 Hz), 1/2,818 (200 Hz); Calibration error: 1/1,796 (50 Hz), 1/749 (200 Hz); Combined error: 1/3,891 (50 Hz), 1/1,418 (200 Hz); Reference: Macleod et al (1990)

HCS Vision Technology B.V.: Primas; Description: Video cameras, interfaced to a host computer via data conversion, reduction and preprocessing, track contrasting markers; Sampling rate: 100 Hz or 120 Hz; Precision: 1/18,000 (x), 1/13,000 (y); Accuracy: 1/2,000; Reference: Furnee (1990)

Peak Performance Technologies Inc.: Peak5 motion measurement systems; Date: 9 Nov 1992; Description: Fluorescent reflective markers are captured by 2 or 3 cameras for 3-D data (flood lights needed). Manual, semi-automatic and automatic marker digitization modes. Kinematics calculated. Allows for analog data acquisition of EMG and force platform. Synchronization of input to video possible. Software: Peak-2D Core, Peak-3D Module; Sampling rate: from 50 Hz up to 2000 Hz; Precision: 1/2,422 (manual digitization), 1/5,280 (automatic digitization); Accuracy: 1/3,267 (manual digitization), 1/4,310 (automatic digitization); Price: US$ 24,200.- (3D) + 3,080.- (installation and training); Reference: Scheirman et al (1990), product information Peak Performance Technologies Peak5, Scholz (1992)

Motion Analysis Corp.: ExpertVision 3D; Date: 8 March 1993; Description: 3-D motion tracking using up to 6 cameras, video processors and tracking software (sorts merged and occluded targets). Software modules for kinematic calculations: OrthoTrak (full body gait analysis), KinTrak (for 3D biomechanics research), FlexTrak (2D acquisition, calibration, tracking and graphics), FootTrak (2D dynamic rearfoot assessment), GaitTrak (gait analysis), SpineTrak (multiple 2D dynamic spine assessment), LiftTrak (2D biomechanical model of the human body). Video archiving provision. ; Frame rate: up to 200 Hz ; Max number of markers: 50; Price: US$ 38,500.-; Reference: Greaves (1990)

Tau Corp.: Eagle/VRS, RTIPS; Description: automatic tracking, real-time video data acquisition and storage, field-of-view and spatial calibration; Reference: Mostafavi (1990), company information Tau Corp.; 

BioVision: (productname unknown); Date: August 93; Description: uses camera's for motion capture; Accuracy: 1/2,000th of the field of view or order of 1/100th of an inch; Number of markers: < 30; Sample rate: 200 Hz; Comments: channel output for wavefront, autodesk, softimage, alias etc; Reference: Brochure BioVision

4D Video: (productname unknown); Date: 17 March 1993; Description: camera tracks passive or active markers; Reference: 4D Video company information

Biomechanics Inc.: (productname unknown); Date: August 93; Description: Optical motion capture with 4 camera's; Comments: used by Acclaim entertainment

United Detector Technology Instrument Group: Op-Eye; Description: uses synchronized infrared LED's with pair of camera's; Reference: Sturman (1994), Meyer et al (1992)

Hentschel System GmbH:  Random Access tracking system HSG 84.30; DOF: x, y, z; Description: retro-reflective markers illuminated by halogen spotlights, captured by random access cameras (with image dissectors) in windows and video interface for generation of deflection signals for the cameras; Sampling rate: <=7,500 markers/s per window (15,000 possible), 126 markers/s per linescan; Resolution: % field of view / 256, e.g. 1/32,768 for smallest window; Window size: 0.5 to 4.0 % of the field of view; Accuracy: < 0.1 % of field of view, after calibration and distortion correction (noise is +/- 8 pixels for 7,500 Hz Sampling rate, 4 pixels for 3,750 Hz, with best light conditions and small windows); System components: random access cameras (head + control), Hentschel video interface, Retro-reflective markers, halogen spotlights; Reference: Zamzow (1990)

Optron Inc.: Optron 5600; Date: 22 feb 1993; Description: biaxial displacement follower system detects edge of marker or object. Using a servoloop to drive deflection amplifiers, the target displacement can be deduced; Range: 0.020" to "infinity" depending on lens; Resolution: upto 0.00001" depending on lens; Sample rate: upto 10 kHz (biaxial), upto 50 kHz (single axis); Price: ca. US$ 23,000.-

Origin instruments: wireless head tracker for stereo displays; Description: The Dynasight sensor is a 3-D optical radar that provides real-time 3-D measurements of passive targets with sub-millimeter resolution. Automatic search and track is provided, eye-safe operation and no adjustments or alignment required. Original application was head tracking of computer users but end-effector tracking is also viable. RS-232 interface. ; Operating range: 0.1-1.5m for 7mm target, 0.3-4m for 25mm target and 1 to 6m for 75mm targets. ; Accuracy: 1mm cross range and 4mm down range; Resolution: 0.1mm cross range and 0.4mm down range.; Price: US$ 2,995.- (head tracker); Reference: Gradecki (1994) p24, Doyle (1993)

Honeywell: Laser beam helmet tracker; Description: two infrared sensors output a pulse when rotating laser beams (sweeping in two directions) passes the sensors. The timing information provides information on the angles of the beams, from which the position and orientation of the sensors can be calculated.; Reference: Ferrin (1991)

Honeywell: LED array helmet tracker; Description: An array with 4 LED's, mounted on the body and sequentially energized, is captured by a camera. Using the camera optical parameters the position and orientation of the LED's can be calculated.; Reference: Ferrin (1991)

Honeywell: Videometric helmet tracker; Description: Videometric principle; a camera captures the position of 4 different markers. Using pattern recognition the position and orientation of the markers can be identified.; Reference: Ferrin (1991)

WW Gaertner / GEC-Marconi: helmet tracker; Description: infra red tracking; Accuracy: 30 arcseconds within distance (between LED's and sensor) of 2 to 3 ft (6 arcs achievable); Update rate: 250 Hz (2,500 Hz achievable); Price: ca. US$ 20,000.-; Reference: Kalawsky (1993) p157-164

University of North Carolina: head tracker; Description: cameras attached to head track infra red LED pattern on ceiling; Range: 4 m sq; Accuracy: 0.1 deg; Reference: Wang et al (1990), Gottschalk et al (1993)

Artificial Reality Corp.: Videoplace; Description: video image based silhouette analysis; Reference: Krueger (1990)

Vivid Inc.: Mandala; Description: camera + videoprocessor in Amiga computer process image of body. Interaction with images from laserdisc player and triggering of sounds.; Reference: product information Vivid Inc. Mandala

MaxMay: (product name unknown); Date: November 1994; Description: Optical head tracker, uses lightweight panel with reference pattern, fits on rear of HMD; Size: 3.5 inch tall; Weight: 3 ounces; Price: contact manufacturer

SimGraphics Engineering: VActor Xpression; Date: August 94; Description: facial expression tracking using adaptive associates camera tracking technology

Vierte Art GmbH: X-Ist; Date August 94; Description: optical tracking of markers placed on facial skin for facial expression tracking

Micromeasurements: (product name unknown); Description: uses an NTSC CCD camera and some custom built computing (Z80 / S100 system) to process the pupil position wrt. camera field. Extremely cumbersome to set up especially for both the subject's eyes. No lag noticeable but this could be due to the low sampling rate. The output is quite noisy (eg +/- 5 degrees) and has proved impossible to use for accurate measurement of gaze.; Sampling rate: 60 Hz; Accuracy: +/- 5 degrees

(manufacturer unknown): OBER system; Description: Uses IR sensing in goggles.  It produces very little measurement noise.  It is not quite as linear as the video based system but could be calibrated.  The supplied software will produce a serial output of 12bit data at a Baud rate dependant on the Sampling rate, as well as writing data to disc. Set-up is easy but calibration depends on facial shape hence it is different in amplitude and possibly linearity for each subject.; Sampling rate: up to 1200 Hz; Resolution: 12 Bit; Contact: (manufacturer unknown), built in Sweden but from an apparently Polish source.  

ISCAN Inc.: RK426 Pupil center / corneal reflection tracking system; Date: 15 May 1992; Description: measurement of the distance between center of corneal reflection and center of pupil, using camera and infra-red source on head; Resolution: (angular range / pixel range covered by angular range) < 1 deg over +/- 20 deg eye movement range (dependent on coverage of pupil/corneal reflection on the camera image, e.g. 512 x 256 pixels for NTSC or 512 x 307 pixels for CCIR); Range: <= +/- 25 deg; Update rate: 20 (50 Hz), 16.7 (60 Hz) upto 4.1 (240 Hz) ms; Calibration: fairly linear as long as corneal reflection center is within pupil image; corneal reflection center minus pupil image center is assumed constant for headmovements < 1 cubic inch; Comfort: works with eye glasses, if necessary precautions are taken; System components: camera, infra-red source, software; Comments: ISCAN uses a video based system, much like Dean Pommerleau (at CMU), but use conventional feature detectors to decompose the image, rather than Pommerleau's back-prop trained network recognition technology.; Reference: Manual ISCAN RK426

LC Technologies: Eyegaze system; Date: May 1991; Description: measurement of the distance between center of corneal reflection and center of pupil, using camera and infra-red source on head; Accuracy: ; Sampling rate: 30 Hz (video camera frame rate), 60 Hz (video camera field rate).; Reference: product information LC Technologies Eyegaze system

BioControl Systems: (product name unknown) ; Description: EOG based system, see under glove/suits.

Manufacturer unknown (StereoGraphics):  Space Controller, Mouselike controller; Price: US$ 995.- (hardware); Contact: Amy Mar, ??, USA. Phone 415 455-1839

MultiPoint Technology: Z-Mouse; Description: uses 2D Mouse and 2D Trackball; DOF:  5; Accuracy: 300 dpi; Interfacing: Has SGI driver, plus some interesting 3D AutoCAD stuff for $50; Price: US$ 450.- (hardware, includes functional software), US$ 200.- (for a programmers reference, which is a nice addition)

Logitech Inc.: Cyberman 3D Controller; Description: uses Strain Gauges, also has pulsing tactile feedback available; DOF:  6; Interfacing: SGI driver is in development; Price: US$ 89.- (includes PC driver and some 3D games) 

CiS Graphics: Geometry ball; Description: uses Strain Gauges; DOF:  6; Accuracy:  .1 " / .5 deg orientation; Price: US$ 1,400.- upto 3,000.- (hardware)

SpaceBall Technologies: Spaceball 2003; Description: uses Strain Gauges; DOF:  6 ; Accuracy: .1" position / .5 deg orientation; Price: US$ 1,600.- (hardware)

Infusion Systems: Bend; Date: May 1998 Description: piezo-resistive flexing angle sensor Range: 130 deg (minimum bend radius approx. 13 mm) Price: $25 US

Infusions Systems: FarReach Date: May 1998 Description: ultrasound time-of-flight distance sensor Range: 15 cm - 10 m Price: 

Infusion Systems: Reach Date: May 1998 Description: senses bulk mass proximity due to distortion of electrostatic field Range: 15 cm Price: 125 US$

Infusion Systems: TouchGlove Date: May 1998 Description: force sensitive sensors mounted inside glove at finger tips and palm Price: $199 US